| Meat | Chicken | Chicken, refined wheat flour (RWF), dw | Raw ground chicken: RWF=1, 2, 3:1Nozzle diameter: 0.82 and 1.22 mm Printing speed: 2,400 mm/min | • The RWF allows the absorption of water that confers strength to the dough, stabilizing the 3D printing.• The formation of a gluten network of wheat improves the flexibility of the dough and results in continuous extrusion. | Adapted from Wilson et al. (2020) with permission of Springer Nature. |
| Chicken, NaCl (0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) | NaCl: 2% Nozzle diameter: 1.2 mm Printing speed: 25 mm/s | • The addition of 1%–4% NaCl increased gel strength below 40°C, but above 55°C, the samples were not extruded owing to the heat-induced crosslinking of chicken proteins.• NaCl addition caused the dissolution of the salt-soluble myofibrillar protein in the meat, forming solid gel network structures. | Adapted from Yang et al. (2022) with CC-BY. |
| Beef | Beef, hydrocolloid: xanthan gum (XG), guar gum (GG), k-carrageenan (KC), locust bean gum (LB)/ dw, NaCl (1%) | Mixing ratio: 0.5% and 1% hydrocolloid slurry Nozzle diameter: 1.2 mm Printing speed: 15 mm/s | • Hydrocolloid addition, except for certain conditions (1% KC and 0.5% KC/0.5% LB), allowed smooth extrusion, proving a significant decrease of viscosity at higher shear rates (shear-thinning behavior).• 1% KC and the control were not extrudable owing to severe shear-thinning properties and poor water-holding capacity.• The printed constructs with higher dimensional deviation exhibited increasing phase angles across frequencies, indicating less shape stability over time. | Adapted from Dick et al. (2021a) with CC-BY. |
| Pork | Pork, XG, GG, dw, NaCl | Mixing ratio: XG=1, GG=1, XG:GG=0.5:0.5, XG:GG=0.7:0.3, XG:GG=0.3:0.7 Nozzle diameter: 1.2 mm Printing speed: 20 mm/s | • Shear-thinning behavior was observed in all samples, including the control, but hydrocolloid addition showed higher viscosity than that of the control at a high shear rate due to improved intermolecular interactions.• The pastes containing hydrocolloids showed a less dense matrix with increased cavities resulting from improved water retention, affecting the texture (lower hardness, cohesiveness, and chewiness than the control). | Adapted from Dick et al. (2020) with permission of Elsevier. |
| Edible insects | Yellow mealworm (YM) | YM, wheat flour (WF) | WF: YM=100:0, 90:10, 80:20 Nozzle diameter: 0.84 mm Printing speed: 30 mm/s | • The dough containing 0% and 10% YM was printed without significant difference from the designed structure, but the addition of 20% YM increased the diameter and decreased the height of the printed cylindrical snacks.• Increased insect content softens the dough and improves moisture evaporation during baking, which lowers the diameter reduction. | Adapted from Severini et al. (2018) with permission of Elsevier. |
| Mealworm | Mealworm protein isolate (MPI), chicken breast, potato starch | Chicken: MPI=MPI 0%, 10%, 30%, 50%, 70% Nozzle diameter: 1, 1.6 mm Printing speed: 30 mm/s | • The G’ value decreased as the MPI content increased owing to the low gel strength and reduced water-holding capacity of MPI.• The 30% and 50% of MPI gel exhibit a layer ripple owing to low gel strength.• When the MPI reaches 70%, structure formation fails owing to weak mechanical strength. | Adapted from Chao et al. (2022) with permission of Elsevier. |
| Cricket (Acheta domesticus) powder (IP=insect powder) | IP, soft WF | WF: IP=100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, 0:100 Nozzle diameter: 150 μm Printing speed: 5 mm/s | • 100% IP ink was difficult to print owing to its high viscosity, and 50% IP ink maintained a stable structure.• Increased IP concentration increased amino acid and water absorption capacity, and high insect content (50%–75%) and moderate solid content (40%–50%) showed optimal printing properties. | Adapted from Adedeji et al. (2022) with permission of John Wiley & Sons. |
| Dairy products | Yogurt | Greek yogurt, beef gelatin (Gel), whey protein isolate (WPI), citric acid, sweetener | WPI: Gel=0:7.5, 0:12.5, 6:10, 12:7.5, 12:12.5 Nozzle diameter: 1.5 mm Print speed: 2,500 mm/min | • The increased gelatin concentration increased the yield stress, storage modulus, loss modulus, firmness, and elasticity of the yogurt gel owing to enhanced gelatin gel network formation.• WPI could not form a cohesive network with the yogurt gel; therefore, it acted as an inert filler, weakening the yogurt gel network. However, the properties of WPI enable smooth gel extrusion in the 3D printing extrusion process, which reduces firmness and resilience and increases adhesion. | Adapted from Riantiningtyas et al. (2021) with CC-BY. |
| Milk powder | Heat-desiccated milk powder (HDMP), semi-skimmed milk powder (SSMP), cornflour (CF) | SSMP: HDMP=35:35, 40:20, 45:15, 50:10, 55:5 Nozzle diameter: 1.1 mm Print speed: 20 mm/s | • The formulation SSMP (55): HDMP (5.0) showed the highest dimensional stability and shape retention owing to the maximum yield stress and storage modulus.• According to the increase of HDMP, the lubricating effect occurs owing to the high-fat ratio (~33%) of HDMP to increase fluidity, whereas SSMP with a low-fat ratio is highly hydrophilic and improves self-supporting ability. | Adapted from Joshi et al. (2021) with permission of Elsevier. |
| Whey protein | Konjac flour (KF), curdlan, whey protein powder (WP), sodium bicarbonate | WP 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, Nozzle diameter: 0.8 mm Print speed: 25 mm/s | • The sample with 20% whey protein can significantly improve printing performance, and the addition of whey protein powder impacts the 3D printing extrusion process and supportability of the printed product.• The addition of whey protein also improved the rheological properties such as storage modulus (G’), viscosity, and textural properties of the gel due to the destruction of the original starch gel structure and gradual formation of a new dense gel system. | Adapted from Du et al. (2021) with permission of Elsevier. |
| α-Lactose monohydrate, WPI | Lactose:WPI=1:0, 3:2, 1:1, 2:3, 0:1, Nozzle diameter: 0.8 mm Print speed: 2 mm/s | • Blending with a lactose/WPI ratio of 1:1 exhibited the best printability, and it was an ideal printing material composition by maintaining the target geometry well after printing.• The rheological and mechanical properties of the lactose/WPI composite hydrocolloids and porous microstructure were changed based on the addition of lactose. Lactose-derived cosolvation retarded protein aggregation, improving printing performance and extrudability. | Adapted from Fan et al. (2022) with permission of Elsevier. |
| Egg products | Cheese | Heat acid coagulated milk (HACM) semi-solids, WPI, maltitol (MT), and citric acid | HACM semi-solids with WPI (2%–4%) and MT (2%–4%), total solid content of 48% (w/w) Nozzle diameter: 0.84 mm Print speed: 35 mm/s | • The formulation with WPI:MT=4:2 showed the best dimensional stability and shape retention, with relatively low firmness (<8N) but fairly high adhesion (~2 N s).• The addition of WPI above 2% significantly improved the recovery index, complex modulus (G*), and gel strength, whereas the addition of MT above 2% decreased the yield stress and recovery index. Excessive MT disrupts the casein network, forming a structurally unstable structure. | Adapted from Bareen et al. (2021) with permission of Elsevier. |
| Egg yolk (EY) / Egg white (EW) | Hen eggs, maltodextrin, rice flour | Egg powder (EY/EW): rice flour=1:1, 1:2 Nozzle diameter: 0.84 mm Print speed: 600 and 800 mm/min | • 3D printing with EY 1:2 material supply results in better binding capacity owing to complex interactions of protein fractions, resulting in better resolution, structural stability, and less deformation.• EY is stronger than EW owing to differences in function and binding properties of globular proteins of EW (ovalbumin) and EY (plasma and granule), respectively. | Adapted from Anukiruthika et al. (2020) with permission of Elsevier. |
| Egg white protein (EWP) | Egg albumen protein powder, edible bovine gelatin, cornstarch, and sucrose | EWP 0%, 1.0%, 3.0%, 5.0%, and 7.0% Nozzle diameter: 1.0 mm Print speed: 70 mm/s | • The 5% EWP mixture system improves the rheological, lubrication, and texture properties and the microstructure, making it ideal for 3D printing.• Excessive protein addition resulted in poor fluidity as reduced hydrophobic bonds in proteins eventually increased viscosity and promoted protein–protein interactions. | Adapted from Liu et al. (2019a) with permission of Springer Nature. |