Table 3. Outcomes of various studies applying physical interventions to improve the tenderness of mature beef muscles

Source	Muscle studied	Physical treatment	Outcomes
Tatum et al. (1978)	Longissimus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus	Blade tenderization	Increased overall tenderness of longissimus but limited impact on shear force across muscles.
Obuz et al. (2014)	Longissimus lumborum	Blade tenderization	Increased myofibrillar tenderness when used with wet but not dry aging.
N’Gatta et al. (2021)	Semitendinosus	Tumbling	Reduced myofibrillar and connective tissue toughness.
Nondorf et al. (2022)	Longissimus lumborum	Tumbling	Increased sensory tenderness for unaged steaks only. No impact on shear force or myofibrillar fragmentation.
Marriott et al. (2001)	Longissimus	Hydrodynamic shock wave	Inconsistent effects on instrumental and sensory tenderness.
Schilling et al. (2003)	Longissimus lumborum	Hydrodynamic shock wave, blade tenderization	Decreased shear force through both hydrodynamic shock waves and blade tenderization.
Got et al. (1999)	Semimembranosus	High-intensity, high-frequency ultrasound	Lengthened sarcomeres and released free calcium when applied pre-rigor but had no impact on myofibrillar resistance of raw meat. Application post-rigor decreased myofibrillar resistance on day 6 only but did not impact sarcomere length.
Morton et al. (2017)	Longissimus thoracis, gluteus medius	High-pressure processing	Decreased shear force and improved sensory tenderness.
Bhat et al. (2019b)	Biceps femoris	Pulsed electric field	No impact on shear force or myofibrillar fragmentation but increased calpain-2 activity and proteolysis of myofibrillar proteins.
Bhat et al. (2019c)	Semimembranosus	Pulsed electric field	No impact on shear force or myofibrillar fragmentation but increased calpain-2 activity and proteolysis of myofibrillar proteins.