Table 4. Ultrasound application in the emulsification of animal-based food components

Animal-based emulsifier	Oil phase	Type of ultrasound	Ultrasound specification	Processing condition	Highlights	Reference
Milk protein isolates	10% (w/w) rapeseed oil	Low frequency-high power	- Frequency: 20 kHz- Intensity: 34 W/cm2	- Time: 1–8 min- Solution T°: 45°C	- Emulsifying performance ↑, emulsion stability ↑- Size of the protein aggregates ↓- Disruption of the molecules into the nano-scale ↑	O’Sullivan et al. (2015)
Bovine gelatin, fish gelatin, and egg white protein	10% (w/w) rapeseed oil	Low frequency-high power	- Frequency: 20 kHz- Intensity: 34 W/cm2	- Time: 2 min- Solution T°: 45°C	- Emulsifying performance ↑- Size of the protein molecules ↓, aggregate size ↓, hydrodynamic volume ↓	O’Sullivan et al. (2016)
Pork (77.5%)	15% pork back fat	Low frequency-high power	- Frequency: 25 kHz- Intensity: 34 W/cm2- Power: 154 W- Amplitude: 60%	- Time: 5.5 min- Solution T°: 10°C	- Emulsifying performance ↑ (88.7%), emulsion stability ↑- T° of meat emulsion ↑- Distribution of cavitation in the emulsion ↑, cohesiveness ↑, hardness ↑, and chewiness ↑- Lipid and protein oxidation were not impaired	Cichoski et al. (2019b)
Pork myofibrillar protein (30 g/L)	Pork fat (2, 3, 6, 30, 150, 300, and 450 mL/L)	Low frequency-high power	- Frequency: 20 kHz- Intensity: 12.38 W/cm2- Power: 240 W	- Time: 6 min- Solution T°: <20°C	- Emulsifying activity ↑, emulsion stability ↑, flow index ↑- Viscosity coefficient ↓, fat droplets’ particle size ↓- Bindings between protein hydrophobic groups and fat particles ↑, protein solubility ↓	Zhou et al. (2021)