Table 1. Representative volatile organic compounds found in the Maillard reaction model system with the use of animal resources

No.	Compound	Odor characteristics	References
	Acids
1	Acetic acid	Sour, pungent	1, 3, 14, 15, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 30
2	Benzoic acid		14, 19, 25, 26
3	Butanoic acid	Cheesey	1, 14, 23, 25
4	Decanoic acid		3, 14, 16, 20, 24, 25
5	Hexanoic acid	Fatty, pungent, sweet	1, 3, 7, 8, 13, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25
6	Heptanoic acid	Cheesy, fatty, sour, rancid	1, 4, 7, 13, 21, 24, 25
7	Nonanoic acid	Cheesy, diary, waxy	1, 3, 6, 7, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 24, 25
8	Octanoic acid	Cheesy, fatty, greasy, oily, pungent, rancid	1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 24, 25
9	Pentanoic acid	Acidic, sweaty, rancid	3, 6, 7, 24, 25
10	Propionic acid	Beany	23, 25, 26
11	3-Methylbutanoic acid		13, 23, 26
	Alcohols
12	Benzyl alcohol		9, 11, 13, 14
13	1-Heptanol	Fruity, nutty, waxy	2, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25
14	1-Hexanol	Fermented, green, oily	2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 24
15	1-Octanol	Citrus, green, fatty, fruity, mushroom, pungent, waxy	2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28
16	1-Octen-3-ol	Earthy, meaty, mushroom, oily	2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 28
17	1-Pentanol	Baked, oily, pungent	2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 24
18	1-Penten-3-ol		9, 13, 15
19	2-Ethyl-1-hexanol	Citrus, oily, sweet	4, 9, 13, 15, 17
20	2-Furanmethanol	Burnt	1, 2, 13, 23
	Aldehydes
21	Benzaldehyde	Almond, nutty, oily	1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28
22	Benzeneacetaldehyde	Fermented, flowery, fruity, sweet	3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 25, 26
23	Decanal	Citrus, pungent, soapy, tallowy, waxy	2, 3, 4, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 28
24	Heptanal	Fatty, fresh, fruity, green, oily	2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29
25	Hexadecanal		4, 13, 16
26	Hexanal	Grass, green	2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28
27	Methional	Earthy, potato	4, 8, 25, 30
28	Nonanal	Citrus, fatty, green, nutty, soapy, waxy	2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28
29	Octanal	Citrus, fatty, fruity, pungent, sour	2, 3, 4, 7, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25
30	Pentanal	Baked, fermented	2, 4, 8, 9, 15, 17, 18, 19
31	Tetradecanal	Creamy, greasy	4, 16, 17
32	Undecanal	Fatty, pungent, waxy	4, 13, 16, 17, 22
33	2-Dodecenal	Fatty, pungent	18, 19, 25
34	2-Methylbutanal	Cocoa, coffee, nutty	4, 8, 9, 15, 23
35	2-Methylpropanal	Chocolate, fresh, malty, pungent	4, 6, 9, 10
36	2-Octenal		8, 15, 20
37	3-Methylbutanal	Chocolate, fatty, greasy, malty	4, 6, 9, 10, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 30
38	(E)-2-Decenal	Earthy, fatty, greasy, waxy	2, 3, 4, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21, 24
39	(E)-2-Heptenal	Fatty	2, 15, 18, 19, 21, 24
40	(E)-2-Hexenal		2, 13, 19, 24
41	(E)-2-Nonenal	Cucumber, fatty, greasy, green, tallowy	2, 3, 4, 11, 18, 19, 22, 24
42	(E)-2-Octenal	Greasy, green, herbal	2, 3, 4, 6, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24
43	(E)-2-Undecenal	Fresh, fruity	3, 4, 24
44	(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal	Chicken, fatty, fried, greasy	2, 3, 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, 19, 21, 24
45	(E,E)-2,4-Heptadienal		9, 19, 21, 24
46	(E,E)-2,4-Hexadienal	Fatty, green	9, 18, 24
47	(E,E)-2,4-Nonadienal	Fatty, waxy	2, 3, 9, 11, 12, 13, 19, 21, 24
	Ester
48	Ethyl acetate	Fruity	6, 15, 26
	Furans
49	Furfural	Almond, baked, caramel, sweet	1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 22, 27, 28, 29
50	2-Acetylfuran	Almond, balsamic, nutty, sweet	4, 14, 15, 18, 20, 23, 27, 29
51	2-Butylfuran	Spicy, sweet, winey	6, 8, 10, 12, 22, 24, 26
52	2-Ethylfuran	Burnt, earthy, malty, sweet	6, 8, 9
53	2-Furanmethanol	Caramel, roasted	10, 18, 25
54	2-Heptylfuran		7, 8, 21, 28
55	2-Hexylfuran		2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 24, 28
56	2-Methylfuran	Chocolate, ethereal	1, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 20
57	2-Octylfuran		6, 7, 8, 21, 24, 25
58	2-Pentylfuran	Buttery, earthy, fatty, green bean, meaty	2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28
59	3-Phenylfuran		1, 4, 5, 6
	Hydrocarbons
60	Dodecane		3, 4, 5, 6, 19
61	Tetradecane		3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 17, 19, 28
62	Toluene	Paint	5, 19, 23, 29
	Ketones
63	Acetophenone	Almond, hawthorn	13, 23, 25
64	1-Octen-3-one	Earthy, herbal, mushroom	6, 15, 19
65	2-Butanone	Camphor, ether, fruity, sweet	4, 10, 14, 15, 23
66	2-Decanone	Floral, greasy	3, 4, 21, 24, 26
67	2-Heptanone	Fatty, fruity, soapy, sweet	3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 14, 17, 18, 24, 25, 26, 28
68	2-Nonanone	Fruity, herbal, musty, soapy, sweet	3, 4, 11, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21, 22, 25, 26
69	2-Octanone	Earthy, fruity, herbal	2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 13, 14, 17, 20, 25
70	2-Pentanone	Fruity, sweet	14, 22, 23
71	2-Undecanone	Fatty, fruity, oily	4, 11, 13, 24, 26
72	2,3-Octanedione	Asparagus, coriander	2, 4, 26
73	2,3-Pentanedione	Almond, buttery, fruity, toasted	4, 14, 22, 23
74	3-Octanone	Cheesy, fresh, mushroom, musty, sweet	4, 6, 26
75	5-Methyl-2-hexanone	Sweet	1, 22, 28
	Phenol
76	Phenol		13, 14, 15
	Pyrazines
77	Pyrazine	Nutty	10, 20, 26, 29
78	Methylpyrazine	Nutty, roasted	2, 9, 10, 23
79	Tetramethylpyrazine	Chocolate, meaty, roasted	3, 10, 25
80	Trimethylpyrazine	Baked, nutty, roasted	1, 3, 10, 14, 23
81	2-Ethyl-5-methylpyrazine	Popcorn	1, 2, 10, 25
82	2-Ethyl-6-methylpyrazine		1, 3, 25
83	2-Methylpyrazine	Chocolate, meaty, nutty, roasted	1, 4, 14, 18, 25, 26, 29
84	2,3-Dimethylpyrazine	Popcorn, roasted	10, 14, 23, 26
85	2,5-Dimethylpyrazine	Chocolate, cocoa, creamy, meaty, nutty, popcorn, roasted	1, 4, 5, 10, 12, 14, 18, 23, 25, 26
86	2,6-Dimethylpyrazine	Chocolate, meaty, nutty, roasted	1, 2, 9, 14, 15, 23, 25, 26
87	3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine	Nutty, roasted	1, 9, 10, 16, 23, 25, 26
88	3,5-Diethyl-2-methylpyrazine	Baked	1, 16, 23
	Pyridine
89	Pyridine	Burnt, roasted	10, 12, 13, 29
	Pyrroles
90	Pyrrole	Nutty, pungent	14, 15, 25
91	1-Furfurylpyrrole	Caramel, coffee, nutty, toasted	1, 4, 14, 25
92	2-Acetylpyrrole	Nutty	1, 18, 20, 23, 27
	Thiazoles
93	Thiazole	Fishy, meaty, nutty	4, 11, 20, 27, 29
94	2-Acethylthiazole	Meaty, nutty, roasted, toasted	4, 10, 20
95	4-Methylthiazole	Green, nutty, vegetable	4, 9, 20
	Thioethers
96	Bis(2-methyl-3-furyl)disulfide	Meaty, roasted, sulfurous	4, 6, 20, 30
97	Dimethyl disulfide	Onion, sulfurous	1, 5, 6, 7, 14, 28, 30
98	Dimethyl trisulfide	Alliaceous, sulfurous	1, 5, 6, 14, 30
	Thiols
99	2-Furfurylthiol	Burnt, chocolate, coffee, meaty, roasted, toasted	4, 6, 7, 11, 16, 17, 22, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30
100	2-Methyl-3-furanthiol	Coffee, meaty, sulfurous	4, 6, 7, 11, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30
	Thiophenes
101	2-Ethylthiophene	Meaty, styrene	18, 22, 27
102	2-Hexylthiophene	Green, meaty	11, 27, 28
103	2-Methylthiophene	Onion, sulfurous	18, 20, 22, 23, 27, 30
104	2-Pentylthiophene	Fatty, fruity, green, meaty, sweet	18, 27, 28
105	2-Thiophenecarboxaldehyde	Sulfurous	6, 18, 22
106	2,5-Dimethylthiophene	Nutty, sulfurous	6, 18, 27
107	3-Methylthiophene	Greasy, sulfurous, winy	4, 6, 7, 11, 18, 30
108	3-Thiophenecarboxaldehyde	Meaty, roasted, sulfurous	6, 10, 11, 22, 25
109	5-Methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde	Meaty, roasted, sulfurous	10, 18, 23, 27, 30

References: 1. Chiang et al. (2019); 2. Chiang et al. (2022); 3. Cui et al. (2022); 4. de Sousa Fontes et al. (2024); 5. Dong et al. (2019); 6. Gao et al. (2020); 7. Lee et al. (2024); 8. Li and Liu (2021); 9. Li et al. (2021b); 10. Liu et al. (2015); 11. Ma et al. (2020); 12. Normah and Noorasma (2018); 13. Song et al. (2012); 14. Song et al. (2016); 15. Song et al. (2017); 16. Sun et al. (2014); 17. Wang et al. (2019); 18. Wei et al. (2020); 19. Xia et al. (2021); 20. Xiao et al. (2015); 21. Xu et al. (2011); 22. Xu et al. (2013); 23. Xu et al. (2019); 24. Yang et al. (2015); 25. Ye et al. (2022); 26. Zhang et al. (2020); 27. Zhao et al. (2019); 28. Zheng et al. (2022); 29. Zhou et al. (2019); 30. Zou et al. (2019).